Try to Stay Healthy: January 2011

Pine bark extract

Pine bark extract is made from the bark of a European coastal pine tree called the Landes or maritime pine, whose scientific name is Pinus maritima. The maritime pine is a member of the Pineaceae family.

Pine bark extract is a new nutritional supplement used for its antioxidant properties, which are believed to be effective for a wide range of healing and preventative purposes. Pine bark extract has been patented by a French researcher under the name Pycnogenol (pronounced picknah-jen-all).

Pine bark extract has a 450-year-old legend surrounding it. There is a written account of an event that happened in 1534, when a French ship led by explorer Jacques Cartier became stranded in ice near Quebec, Canada.

Pinellia (Araceae pinellia ternatae) is a member of the Aroid family. Originating from China and Japan, it is a small plant that is popular for ornamental use and known in Asia as “green dragon.”

Pinellia is a small plant, growing only to a height of 6–12 in (15–30 cm) high. It has black shiny stems, and glossy arrowhead-shaped leaves that are highlighted by a silver stripe along the veins. It produces purple tongue-like flowers in late summer.

General use

Athough not widely used in Western herbal medicine, pinellia is particularly useful for chest complaints. It relieves coughs and cuts through mucus, being especially good for sinus congestion and nasal discharge.

Pityriasis rosea is a skin disease of uncertain origin characterized by lesions bordered by collar-like areas that tend to peel off in tiny scales. Pityriasis comes from the Greek word for bran, pityron, because the flakes of skin shed from the lesions resemble small pieces of wheat bran. Rosea comes from a Latin word that means “rose-colored” or “pink.”

Description

Pityriasis rosea is a common benign skin disease, or exanthem, that was first described by a French physician named Camille Gibert in 1860.

It is classified as a papulosquamous disorder, which means that its lesions are marked by small raised areas (papules) as well as scaly areas. Pityriasis rosea begins in 60%–90% of patients with a pinkish-brown or salmon-colored herald patch sometimes called a mother patch—on the chest, back, or neck.

A placebo effect occurs when a treatment or medication with no therapeutic value (a placebo) is administered to a patient and the patient’s symptoms improve.

The patient believes and expects that the treatment is going to work, therefore it does. The placebo effect is also a factor to some degree in clinically effective therapies, and explains why patients respond better than others to treatment despite similar symptoms and illnesses.

Origins

The word placebo is from the Latin "I shall please". Throughout most of medical history, the placebo effect was the principal treatment physicians offered their patients—e.g. reassurance, attention, and belief in treatment would mobilize patients’ internal powers to fight their illnesses.

Plantain, Plantago major, was considered to be one of the nine sacred herbs by the ancient Saxon people, and has been celebrated in Anglo-Saxon poetry as the “mother of herbs.” There are more than 200 species of plantain and nearly as many recorded uses for this humble herb. Plantain is native to northern and central Asia and Europe.

Early colonists brought plantain to North America as one of their favored healing remedies. Native Americans called this persistent herb “white man’s foot” as it is often found growing along well-trodden foot paths. The Latin generic name means “sole of the foot.”

The indigenous Americas adopted many of the traditional European uses for this beneficial herb. They also used the plant to draw out the poison of rattlesnake bite, to soothe rheumatic pain, as a poultice to treat battle wounds, and as an eyewash. They used the fresh young leaves and seeds in their diet.

Pleurisy is an inflammation of the membrane that surrounds and protects the lungs (the pleura). Inflammation occurs when an infection or damaging agent irritates the pleural surface. Sharp chest pains are the primary symptom of pleurisy.

Pleurisy, also called pleuritis, is a condition that generally stems from an existing respiratory infection, disease, or injury. In people who have otherwise good health, respiratory infections or pneumonia are the main causes of pleurisy. This condition used to be more common, but with the advent of antibiotics and modern disease therapies, pleurisy has become less prevalent.

The pleura is a double-layered structure made up of an inner membrane, which surrounds the lungs, and an outer membrane, which lines the chest cavity. The pleural membranes are very thin, close together, and have a fluid coating in the narrow space between them. This liquid acts as a lubricant, so that when the lungs inflate and deflate during breathing, the pleural surfaces can easily glide over one another.

Pneumonia is an infection of the lung that can be caused by nearly any class of organism known to cause human infections. These include bacteria, amoebae, viruses, fungi, and parasites.

In the United States, pneumonia is the sixth most common disease leading to death; 2 million Americans develop pneumonia each year, and 40,000–70,000 die from it.

Pneumonia is also the most common fatal infection acquired by already hospitalized patients. In developing countries, pneumonia ties with diarrhea as the most common cause of death.

Polarity therapy is a holistic, energy-based system that includes bodywork, diet, exercise, and lifestyle counseling for the purpose of restoring and maintaining proper energy flows throughout the body.

The underlying concept of polarity therapy is that all energy within the human body is based in electromagnetic force and that disease results from improperly dissipated energy.

Origins

Austrian-American chiropractor, osteopath, and naturopath Randolph Stone (1888–1981) developed polarity therapy as an integration of Eastern and Western principles and techniques of healing.

Postpartum depression is a mood disorder that begins after childbirth and usually lasts at least six weeks.

Postpartum depression, or PPD, affects approximately 15% of all childbearing women. The onset of postpartum depression tends to be gradual and may persist for many months, or develop into a second bout following a subsequent pregnancy. Mild to moderate cases are sometimes unrecognized by women themselves.

Many women feel ashamed and may conceal their difficulties. This is a serious problem that disrupts women’s lives and can have effects on the baby, other children, her partner, and other relationships. Levels of depression for fathers can also increase significantly.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating psychological condition trigged by a traumatic event, such as rape, war, a terrorist act, sudden or violent death of a loved one, natural disaster, or catastrophic accident. It is marked by recurring memories or thoughts of the event, “blunting” of emotions, increased arousal, and sometimes severe personality changes.

Description

Officially termed post-traumatic stress disorder since 1980, descriptions of post-traumatic stress were documented as early as the Civil War and in nineteenth century train crash victims. In the period between World War I and II, a condition known as “shell shock” or “battle fatigue” was recognized.

Potassium is one of the electrolytes essential to the smooth running of the human body; in fact just about all bodily functions depend on it to some extent. It is also one of the most abundant minerals in the body, constituting 70% of the positive ions inside cells; the rest are a mixture of sodium, magnesium, calcium, arginine, and others.

Potassium is distributed to the cells by a process of passive diffusion and is regulated by an enzyme called adenosinetriphosphatase together with the level of sodium concentration inside the cell.

Potassium and sodium are antagonistic, which means that an imbalance of one will automatically cause an imbalance of the other; normally potassium should predominate inside the cell.

Pranic healing encompasses a broad array of therapeutic approaches, both ancient and modern, based on the notion that illnesses of body or mind involve an imbalance and/or blockage in the flow of vital life energy.

In ancient India, this energy was known as prana, as it still is in the contemporary practice of yoga and Ayurvedic medicine. Traditional Chinese medicine uses the term qi to describe this vital energy.

Pranic healing seeks, by widely varying means, to strengthen and equalize the pranic flow. And, as the number of alternative therapies has mushroomed during the last several decades, the concept of prana/qi has become almost a common denominator among approaches that may otherwise seem wildly diverse.

Pregnancy

Pregnancy is the period from conception to birth. After the egg is fertilized by a sperm and then implanted in the lining of the uterus, it develops into the placenta and embryo, and later into a fetus. Pregnancy usually lasts 40 weeks, beginning from the first day of the woman’s last menstrual period. The condition is divided into three trimesters, each lasting three months.

Description

Pregnancy is a state in which a woman carries a fertilized egg inside her body.

First month

At the end of the first month, the embryo is about 1/3 in long (.85 cm), and its head, trunk, and the beginnings of arms and legs have started to develop. The embryo gets nutrients and eliminates waste through the umbilical cord and placenta. By the end of the first month, the liver and digestive system begin to develop, and the heart starts to beat.

Pregnancy massage is the prenatal use of massage therapy to support the physiologic, structural, and emotional well-being of both mother and fetus.

Various forms of massage therapy, including Swedish, deep tissue, neuromuscular, movement, and Oriental-based therapies, may be applied throughout pregnancy as well as during labor and the postpartum period.

Origins

Cultural and anthropological studies indicate that massage and movement during the childbearing experience were and continue to be a prominent part of many cultures’ health care. Indian Ayurvedic medical manuals detail therapists’ instructions for rubbing specially formulated oils into pregnant patients’ stretched abdominal skin.

Premenstrual syndrome

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) refers to a compilation of over 150 symptoms that occur between ovulation and the onset of menstruation.

The symptoms include both physical symptoms, such as breast tenderness, back pain, abdominal cramps, headache, and changes in appetite; behavioral symptoms such as clumsiness, poor concentration, and sleep problems; as well as psychological symptoms of anxiety, irritability, depression, and unrest.

Severe forms of this syndrome are referred to as premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). These symptoms may be related to hormonal imbalances and emotional disorders.

Prickly heat is a common disorder of the sweat glands characterized by a red, itching, prickling rash following exposure to high environmental temperatures.

Description

Prickly heat is also known as heat rash, sweat retention syndrome, and miliaria rubra. This disorder occurs during the summer months or year-round in hot, humid climates, and is caused by blockage of the sweat glands.

The skin contains two types of glands: one produces oil and the other produces sweat. The sweat glands are coil-shaped and extend deep into the skin.

A member of the Cactaceae (or cactus) family, prickly pear cactus, also known as nopal, grows in the United States, Mexico, and South America. It also flourishes in Africa, Australia, and the Mediterranean.

Although prickly pear cactus can tolerate a wide range of temperature and moisture levels, it grows best in sunny, desert-like conditions.

Over a dozen species of prickly pear cactus belong to the Opuntia genus, but all of them have flat, fleshy, green-colored pads that look like large leaves and are oval to round in shape. With a tendency to grow quickly and at odd angles, the pads are actually the stems of the plant.

The Pritikin diet is a low-fat regimen that promotes eating whole grains, vegetables, and fruit over animal protein, eggs, processed grains, and sugar.

Nathan Pritikin developed the diet in the 1970s. He was diagnosed with heart disease in the late 1950s but was not satisfied with his medical care.

Although he did not have a medical background, he spent the next 20 years researching diet and nutrition, experimenting with a variety of diets, such as eating only meats or only lentils.

Probiotics, as defined by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), are “live microorganisms administered in adequate amounts which confer a beneficial health effect on the host.”

The microorganisms referred to in this definition are non-pathogenic bacteria (small, single celled organisms which do not promote or cause disease), and one yeast, Saccharomyces.

They are considered “friendly germs,” due to benefits to the colon and the immune system. The word probiotic is a compound of a Latin and a Greek word; it means “favorable to life.” Probiotics is also sometimes used to refer to a form of nutritional therapy based on eating probiotic foods and dietary supplements.

Prolotherapy is the treatment of soft-tissue damage through the use of injections. The injections lead to inflammation in the area, and the body reacts by increasing the blood supply and sending more nutrients to the area, resulting in tissue repair. The term prolotherapy is derived from the word prolo, short for proliferation, as the therapy is intended to proliferate tissue growth in the damaged area.

Origins

The idea behind this therapy dates back more than 2000 years to Hippocrates, who used it to treat soldiers with injured shoulders. Instead of injections Hippocrates used a hot poker, which he speared into the shoulder joint, causing inflammation and stimulating the body to repair itself.

An enlarged prostate is a non-cancerous condition in which the narrowing of the urethra makes the elimination of urine more difficult. It most often occurs in men over age 50.

A non-cancerous condition that affects many men past 50 years of age, enlarged prostate makes eliminating urine more difficult by narrowing the urethra, a tube running from the bladder through the prostate gland. It can effectively be treated by surgery and, today, by certain drugs.

Description

The common term for enlarged prostate is BPH, which stands for benign (non-cancerous) prostatic hyperplasia or hypertrophy. Hyperplasia means that the prostate cells are dividing too rapidly, increasing the total number of cells and therefore the size of the organ itself. Hypertrophy simply means enlargement.

Prostate cancer is a disease in which the cells of the prostate become abnormal and start to grow uncontrollably, forming tumors. Tumors that can spread to other parts of the body are called malignant tumors or cancers. Tumors incapable of spreading are said to be benign.

Description

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer among men in the United States, and is the second leading cause of cancer deaths. The American Cancer Society (ACS) estimates that in 1998, at least 185,000 new cases of prostate cancer will be diagnosed, and it will be the cause of at least 40,000 deaths.

Although prostate cancer may be very slow-growing, it is a heterogeneous disease and can be quite aggressive, especially in younger men.

Psoriasis is a chronic, non-contagious disease characterized by inflamed hyperproliferative lesions covered with silvery-white scabs of dead skin.

Description

Psoriasis, which affects at least four million Americans, is slightly more common in women than in men. Although the disease can develop at any time, 10–15% of all cases are diagnosed in children under 10, and the average age at the onset of symptoms is 28 years of age.

Psoriasis is most common in fair-skinned people and relatively rare in dark-skinned individuals, although the rate among African Americans appears to be slowly rising.

Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI), is a relatively recent branch of science that enforces beliefs that physicians have held for many centuries, perhaps well before the times of the ancient Greeks.

The premise is that a patient’s mental state influences diseases and healing. Specifically, PNI studies the connection between the brain and the immune system.

Origins

The term psychoneuroimmunology was coined by Robert Ader, a researcher in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Rochester Medical Center in Rochester, New York.

Psychophysiology is the branch of physiology that is concerned with the relationship between mental (psyche) and physical (physiological) processes; it is the scientific study of the interaction between mind and body.

The field of psychophysiology draws upon the work of physicians, psychologists, biochemists, neurologists, engineers, and other scientists.

A psychophysiological disorder is characterized by physical symptoms that are partly induced by emotional factors. Some of the more common emotional states responsible in forming illness include anxiety, stress, and fear.

Psychotherapy can be defined as a means of treating psychological or emotional problems such as neurosis or personality disorder through verbal and nonverbal communication.

It is the treatment of psychological distress through talking with a specially trained therapist and learning new ways to cope rather than merely using medication to alleviate the distress.

It is done with the immediate goal of aiding the person in increasing self-knowledge and awareness of relationships with others. Psychotherapy is carried out to assist people in becoming more conscious of their unconscious thoughts, feelings, and motives.

Psyllium is a seed used for medicinal purposes taken from the common fleawort, Plantago psyllium. There are about 250 species of the genus Plantago found worldwide; they belong to the Plantaginaceae family.

The most common species producing seed for medicinal use, in addition to P. psyllium, are P. afra, P. isphagula, P. ovata, and P. indica.

Psyllium is extensively cultivated in many parts of the world. Shrubby perennial plants with narrow green leaves put up spikes of small flowers that mature into seedpods. The seeds and husks are harvested and used in healing. The seeds are small (1.5–2 cm) and brown or reddish-brown.

Pulsatilla nigricans, commonly known as pulsatilla, is a remedy derived from the plant commonly known as wind flower, pasque flower, or meadow anemone.

The perennial plant is a member of the Ranunculaceae family and is native to central and northern Europe and southern England. This wild plant grows in sunny meadows, pastures, and fields.

A crown of leaves forms on the ground, from which a single flower grows in May and August. The stem reaches a height of about 6 in (15 cm) and has downy hairs that grow on it. The flower is colored dark violet-brown.

Pulse diagnosis is a diagnostic technique used in several healing systems to determine the health conditions and course of treatment for patients.

Origins

As used in Ayurvedic medicine and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), the techniques of pulse diagnosis have been developed over thousands of years, as these two systems of medicine are the world’s oldest.

Acupuncture, a branch of TCM, has long relied on pulse diagnosis as a main tool to determine the course of treatment. In Western medicine, every time a doctor checks the pulse of a patient and listens to the heartbeat with a stethoscope, the doctor is practicing a form of pulse diagnosis.

Pyridoxine, or vitamin B₆, is a member of the watersoluble family of B vitamins. It is necessary in the processes to metabolize proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, to make hormones and neurotransmitters, and to support the immune system.

It also plays a role in the production of normal, healthy red blood cells and some of the neurotransmitters needed for proper nervous system function. In conjunction with folic acid and cobalamin, it acts to reduce homocysteine levels, thus lowering the risk of developing heart disease.

Qigong (pronounced “chee-gung,” also spelled chi kung) is translated from the Chinese to mean “energy cultivation” or “working with the life energy.”

Qigong is an ancient Chinese system of postures, exercises, breathing techniques, and meditations. Its techniques are designed to improve and enhance the body’s qi. According to traditional Chinese philosophy, qi is the fundamental life energy responsible for health and vitality.

Origins

Qigong originated before recorded history. Scholars estimate qigong to be as old as 5,000–7,000 years. Tracing the exact historical development of qigong is difficult, because it was passed down in secrecy among monks and teachers for many generations.

Rabies is a viral illness that can affect any mammal but is most common in carnivores (flesh-eaters). It is sometimes referred to as a zoonosis, or disease of animals that can be communicated to humans.

Rabies is usually transmitted in the saliva through a bite wound. The virus attacks the central nervous system, and is fatal once symptoms begin, with very rare exceptions.

Rabies, also known as hydrophobia, belongs to the rhabdovirus family. Fewer than 10% of animal cases reported in the United States in 1998 were in domestic animals. Raccoons accounted for the largest number of cases in wild animals.

Radiation injuries are caused by ionizing radiation emitted by such sources as the sun, x-ray and other diagnostic machines, tanning beds, and radioactive elements released in nuclear power plant accidents and detonation of nuclear weapons during war and as terrorist acts.

Description

Ionizing radiation is made up of unstable atoms that contain an excess amount of energy. In an attempt to stabilize, the atoms emit the excess energy into the atmosphere, creating radiation. Radiation can either be electromagnetic or particulate.

The energy of electromagnetic radiation is a direct function of its frequency. The high energy, high frequency waves that can penetrate solids to various depths cause damage by separating molecules into electrically charged pieces, a process known as ionization. X rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation. Atomic particles come from radioactive isotopes as they decay to stable elements.

Rash is a popular term for a group of spots or an area of red, inflamed skin. A rash is usually a symptom of an underlying condition or disorder. Often only temporary, a rash is rarely a sign of a serious problem.

A rash may occur on only one area of the skin, or it can cover almost all of the body. A rash may or may not itch. Depending on how it looks, a rash may be described as:

blistering (raised oval or round collections of fluid within or beneath the outer layer of skin)
macular (flat spots)
nodular (small, firm, knotty rounded masses)
papular (small, solid, slightly raised areas)
pustular (pus-containing skin blisters)

Raspberry (Rubus ideaeus) is a deciduous bush from the Rosaceae family that grows up to 6 ft (2 m) high, with erect and thorny stems, a thin spine and perennial roots.

The bush is well-known for its fruit, a red spherical berry that grows continuously on the branches. Cymes (clusters) of white flowers bloom in late spring to early summer. Raspberries can be grown in many temperate countries, in either dry or moist wooded areas.

General use

Raspberry leaves are used as an astringent and stimulant. High concentrations of tannin found in the plant are the source of its astringent effects. It also contains flavonoids, pectin, citric and malic acids, and a crystallizable fruit sugar and water.

Raynaud’s syndrome is a disorder in which the fingers or toes (digits) suddenly experience decreased blood circulation. It is also called Raynaud’s disease.

Raynaud’s syndrome can be classified as one of two types: primary, or idiopathic (of unknown cause) disease; and secondary, which is also called Raynaud’s phenomenon.

Primary Raynaud’s disease is milder and causes fewer complications.About half of all cases of Raynaud’s disease are of this type. Women are four times more likely than men to develop primary Raynaud’s disease, and the average age of diagnosis is between 20 and 40 years. About 30% of all cases of primary Raynaud’s disease progress after diagnosis, while 15% of cases actually improve.

Red cedar, also called western red cedar, is the species Thuja plicata. It should not be confused with the eastern red cedar, Juniperus virginiana, or the Lebanon cedar, Cedrus libani, which are unrelated species. Eastern red cedar is toxic if taken internally.

Western red cedar is a tree that grows to a height of 125 ft (60 m) in moist soils in mixed coniferous forests. It has red-brown or gray-brown bark with thick longitudinal fissures that is easily peeled. Its foliage develops in sprays about 6 in (15 cm) long with small, highly aromatic leaves. The leaves, twigs, bark, and roots are all used medicinally.

Western red cedar is found in the western United States and western Canada from Alaska through northern California and in the Rocky Mountains from British Columbia through Montana.

Red clover (Trifolium pratense) is a familiar meadow herb, one of 250 species in the Leguminosae, or pea family. The Irish shamrock is another species in this family of plants.

Red clover is a European native naturalized throughout North America and Canada. This familiar short-lived perennial grows wild along roadsides, in meadows, and in fields, and is extensively cultivated as a forage crop for cattle.

It grows best in soils that are rich in calcium, potassium, and phosphorus. The common names for this sweet herb include wild clover, meadow trefoil, bee bread, trefoil, cow grass, purple clover, and three-leafed grass.

Native to China, red yeast rice extract is the byproduct of Monascus purpureus Went (red yeast) fermenting on rice. Part of the Monascaceae family, Monascus purpureus is identified by its ascospores.

The color of the mycelium is initially white, but soon changes to pink and then yellow-orange due to an increase in acidity and the development of hyphae. They explain that as the culture ages, it is characterized by a dark crimson color at the substratum.

General use

Documented as early as 800 A.D., Chinese red yeast rice was used in the preserving, flavoring, and coloring of food and wine. However, in addition to red yeast rice’s culinary properties, it was soon discovered that red yeast rice possessed medicinal properties as well.

Reflexology is a therapeutic method of relieving pain by stimulating predefined pressure points on the feet and hands. This controlled pressure alleviates the source of the discomfort.

In the absence of any particular malady or abnormality, reflexology may be as effective for promoting good health and for preventing illness as it may be for relieving symptoms of stress, injury, and illness.

Reflexologists work from maps of predefined pressure points that are located on the hands and feet. These pressure points are reputed to connect directly through the nervous system and affect the bodily organs and glands.

Reiki is a form of therapy that uses simple hands-on, no-touch, and visualization techniques, with the goal of improving the flow of life energy in a person.

Reiki (pronounced ray-key) means “universal life energy” in Japanese, and Reiki practitioners are trained to detect and alleviate problems of energy flow on the physical, emotional, and spiritual level.

Reiki touch therapy is used in much the same way to achieve similar effects that traditional massage therapy is used—to relieve stress and pain, and to improve the symptoms of various health conditions.

Reishi mushrooms are some of the most widely used medicinal mushrooms in the world. Their scientific name is Ganoderma lucidum.

In Chinese medicine, reishi mushrooms are known as ling zhi, which means spiritual plant as the Chinese believe the herb is healing for the spirit. Some Asians make good luck charms from the mushrooms in addition to using them as medicine.

The Latin name Ganoderma means shiny skin, which describes the reddish brown caps of the mushrooms. Reishi mushrooms are kidney-shaped and grow to 8 in (20 cm) or more in diameter.

Relaxation therapy is a broad term used to describe a number of techniques that promote stress reduction, the elimination of tension throughout the body, and a calm and peaceful state of mind.

Origins

Relaxation therapy has been around for thousands of years in the forms of transcendental meditation (TM), yoga, t'ai chi, qigong, and vipassana (a Buddhist form of meditation meaning insight and also known as mindfulness meditation).

Progressive relaxation, a treatment that rids the body of anxiety and related tension through progressive relaxation of the muscle groups, was first described by Dr. Edmund Jacobson in his book Progressive Relaxation, published in 1929.

Rescue Remedy is the trademarked name of a combination of five Bach flower essences intended for use in emotional or psychological emergencies.

It contains the essences of star of Bethlehem, rock rose, impatiens, cherry plum, and clematis. It is by far the most popular of the Bach preparations, and is available as a cream as well as in liquid form for internal use.

In terms of their history, the Bach flower essences are a variation of homeopathic remedies. Dr. Edward Bach (1886–1936), the English practitioner who first prepared them, was trained in both mainstream medicine and homeopathy. He worked as a bacteriologist and pathologist in the University College Hospital as well as the London Homoeopathic Hospital during the 1920s.

The condition known as restless leg syndrome (RLS) is a movement disorder caused by an irresistible urge to move the legs due to unpleasant sensations. It occurs primarily during times of relaxation, such as when the patient is trying to go to sleep.

Most frequently, RLS troubles people over age 40. Almost half of patients over age 60 who complain of insomnia are diagnosed with RLS.

Those who have a family history of it may have trouble with it as younger adults, or even as children. It is not usually described as painful, although some may complain of a disagreeable creeping, tugging, or aching sensation.

Retinal detachment is a serious eye disorder in which the retina, a thin tissue of cells located in the back of the eye, separates from the underlying tissue layers.

There are three layers of the eyeball. The outer, tough, white layer is called the sclera. Lining the sclera is the choroid, a thin membrane that supplies nutrients to part of the retina. The retina is located at the back of the eye and consists of three cellular layers.

The retina contains the light-sensitive receptors for sight and processes visual images. A retinal detachment occurs between the two outermost layers of the retina, the photoreceptor layer that receives light and the outermost pigmented epithelium. When a tear in the retina occurs, the fluids in the eye may leak and pull the retina out of place, or detach it from the layers.

Retinopathy is a noninflammatory disease of the retina. There are many causes and types of retinopathy.

The retina is the thin membrane that lines the back of the eye and contains light-sensitive cells (photoreceptors). Light enters the eye and is focused onto the retina. The photoreceptors send a message to the brain via the optic nerve. The brain then interprets the electrical message sent to it, resulting in vision.

The macula is a specific area of the retina responsible for central vision. The fovea is about 1.5 mm in size and is located in the macula. The fovea is responsible for sharp vision. When looking at something, the fovea should be directed at the object.

Rheumatic fever (RF) is an illness that occurs as a complication of untreated or inadequately treated strep throat infection. Rheumatic fever causes inflammation of tissues and organs and can result in serious damage to the heart valves, joints, central nervous system and skin.

Rheumatic fever is rare in the United States, though there were outbreaks in both New York City and in Utah in the 1990s. The disease is more prevalent in the developing world, where rheumatic fever is the leading cause of heart disease. In some countries, as many as one to two percent of children are afflicted with the disease.

Though the exact cause of rheumatic fever is unknown, the disease usually follows the contraction of a throat infection caused by a member of the Group A streptococcus (strep) bacteria (called strep throat). The streptococcus A bacteria has also been linked to many serious diseases, including “flesh-eating” disease and toxic shock syndrome.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic disease causing inflammation and deformity of the joints. Other systemic problems throughout the body may also develop, including inflammation of blood vessels (vasculitis), the development of bumps (rheumatoid nodules) in various parts of the body, lung disease, blood disorders, and weakening of the bones (osteoporosis).

The skeletal system of the body is made up of different types of strong, fibrous tissue called connective tissue. Bone, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons are all forms of connective tissue that have different compositions and characteristics.

The joints are structures that hold two or more bones together. Synovial joints allow for movement between the bones being joined, the articulating bones.

Rhinitis is inflammation of the mucous lining of the nose.

Rhinitis is a nonspecific term that covers nasal congestion due to infections, allergies, and other disorders. In rhinitis, the mucous membranes of the nose become infected or irritated, producing a discharge, congestion, and swelling of the tissues.

The most widespread form of infectious rhinitis is the common cold. The common cold is the most frequent viral infection in the general population. Colds are self-limited, lasting about three to 10 days, although they are sometimes followed by a bacterial infection.

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